Abraham Maslow is considered to be the father of Humanistic Psychology,also known as the "Third Force". Humanistic Psychology incorporates aspects of both Behavioral Psychology and Psychoanalytic Psychology.
Maslow's motivation theory states that man's behavior is controlled by both internal and external factors. In addition he emphasizes that humans have the unique ability to make choices and excercise free-will.
His studies led him to believe that people have certain needs which are unchanging and genetic in origin. These needs are the same in all cultures and are both physiological and psychological. Maslow described these needs as being hierarchal in nature, meaning that some needs are more basic or more powerful than others and as these needs are satisfied, other higher needs emerge.
Suggestions for Application of Maslow's Theory to Education
Physiological
reduced & free lunch programs
correct room temperatures
bathroom breaks
drink breaks
Safety
well planned lessons, carried out in an orderly fashion
controlled classroom behaviors
emergency procedures well planned, discussed & practiced
fair discipline
consistent expectations
attitude of teacher: accepting & non judgemental, pleasant,nonthreatening
provide praise for correct responses instead of punishment for incorrect responses
Love & Belonging
With regard to teacher-student relationships
teacher personality: empathetic, considerate & interested in the individual, patient, fair, able to self-disclose, positive attitude, good listener
use one-on-one instruction
use teacher conferencing
provide positive comments & feedback rather than negative
get to know students (likes, dislikes, concerns)
be available for students in need
listen to students
be supportive
have personal helpers on rotating basis
show that you value students thoughts, opinions & judgments
show trust of students by providing situation where it is necessary (ex.running errands, classroom leader)
With regard to student-student relationships
class meetings
class discussions
peer tutoring
provide situations requiring mutual trust
show&tell, sharing
Esteem
Self-esteem
develop new knowledge based on background knowledge so as to help ensure success (scaffolding)
pace instruction to fit individual need
focus on strengths & assets
take individual needs & abilities into account when planning lessons and carrying them out
teach to the multiple moded of learning
teach & model learning strategies
base new teaching, strategies & plans on learning outcomes
be alert to student difficulties & intervene as soon as possible
be available & approachable so students having difficulties feel comfortable coming for help
involve all students in class participation & responsibilities
when necessary to discipline a child, do as privately as possible
Respect from others
develop a classroom environment where students are positive &nonjudgmental
star of the week
award programs for jobs well done
providing deserved positions of status
recognition programs for special effort (ex. helpful citizens of the week)
develop & carry out a curriculum to encourage children to be empathetic& good listeners
employ cooperative learning in such a way as to develop trust between group members
involve students in activities of importance & worthiness (ex. cleaning up the environment, carrying out a food drive for the needy)
Knowledge & Understanding
allow students time to explore areas of curiosity
provide lessons that are intellectually challenging
plan lessons that connect areas of learning & have students compare and contrast to search for relationships
use a discovery approach to learning whenever possible
have students approach topics of learning from various angles
provide opportunities for philosophical thought & discussion
get students involved in intellectually challenging programs (ex. Odyssey of the Mind)
Aesthetic
organize classroom materials in a neat & appealing way
display student art work in an appealing manner
put up interesting & colorful wall hangings
replace overly worn classroom materials periodically
create varied appealing & interesting learning centers
rooms painted in pleasing colors
large window areas
well maintained physical surroundings (ex. keeping walls painted, desks clean & repaired etc.)
clean rooms
fresh smelling rooms
Self-actualization
expect students to do their best
give students freedom to explore & discover on their own
make learning meaningful--connect to "real" life
plan lessons involving meta-cognitive activities
get students involved in self-expressive projects
allow students to be involved in creative activities & projects
Teaching guidelines for the future
Of the ten guidelines for teaching and preparing young people for the 21st Century prepared by Australian researchers Beare & Slaughter, eight refer to important features of Steiner Waldorf education:
- Appropriate imagery - choosing metaphors with care and imagination
- Teach for wholeness and balance - holistic paradigm;
- Teach identification, connectedness, integration - epistemological inter-connectedness;
- Develop individual values - value the individual;
- Teach visualisation - development of the picturing imagination;
- Empowerment through active hope - distinguish between faith and hope;
- Tell stories - use story telling and mythology as powerful teaching tool; and
- Teach and learn how to celebrate - celebrate festivals.
Or, to summarise the spirit of the above in the words of Rudolf Steiner:
The need for imagination,
a sense of truth
and a feeling of responsibility
---these are the three forces which are the very nerve of education.
Rudolf Dreikurs (1897-1972)
Biography
This social psychologist was born in Vienna, Austria on February 8, 1897. His contributions to society were plentiful up until his passing on May 25, 1972 in Chicago, Illinois. Dreikurs was a student and colleague of social pychologist Alfred Adler, who "believed that the central motivation of all humans is to belong and be accepted by others" (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 115).
The Encyclopedia Britannica depicts Dreikurs as an "American psychiatrist and educator who developed the Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler's system of individual psychology into a pragmatic method for understanding the purposes of reprehensible behaviour in children and for stimulating cooperative behaviour without punishment or reward."
2. Historical background of Adler’s theory
The rash application of Freudian concepts and John Dewey’s progressive education caused extreme indulgence or ultra permissiveness in discipline and failed effectively dealing with children in new democratic society. For Adler, "what was needed was a willingness to understand the child and to stimulate his cooperation" (Dreikurs, 1968, p. 19) based on the responsibility.
Basics of Adler and Dreikurs’s social theory
① Adler’s Basic premises (Dreikurs, 1972, pp. 8-9)
i) Man is a social being and his main desire (the basic motivation) is to belong.
ii) All behavior is purposive. One cannot understand behavior of another person unless one knows to which goal it is directed, and it is always directed towards finding one's place.
iii) Man is a decision-making organism.
iv) Man does not see reality as it is, but only as he perceives it, and his perception may be mistaken or biased.
Can be put under Confronting-Contracting intervention model, because it believes the correction of students’ misbehavior is the result of a teacher actively showing a student how to belong (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 115).
Logical consequences replace punishment (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 137).
[edit] Application in classrooms and similar settings
1. Comparison of Dreikurs's Social Discipline Model with other teacher intervention models (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 37)
① This model is similar with Relationship-Listening model in that trying to find an underlying cause for misbehaviors and having optimistic belief in the child’s rational capacities. But this is more assertive and intrusive than Relationship-Listening model, and adults or peers need to intervene and redirect the child’s misplaced goals.
② When compared to Rules and Consequences model, this model is applying logical consequences rather than punishment, and encouragement rather than rewards.
2. Applications in classroom setting
① Basic Assumption
All misbehavior is the result of a child’s mistaken assumption about the way he can find a place and gain status (Dreikurs, 1968, p. 36).
② Students’ goals that motivates misbehavior (Wolfgang, 2001, pp. 117-122) (Dreikurs, 1968, pp. 37-40)
i) Attention Getting
Students who are looking to belong and be recognized in the class. This is more often identified with disturbing behavior. Many times this occurs because students are not getting the recognition that they feel they deserve. If students cannot get attention for their positive behaviors (being on task, completing work, arriving on time, etc.), they will seek it with inappropriate behaviors (continually calling out, refusing to work, asking irrelevant questions, etc.)
Wolfgang (2001) explains, "A student who seeks attention should not receive it when he acts out. To give attention to the student for inappropriate behavior would be playing into the student's plan and would not help the student learn how to behave productively in the group" (p. 120).
Instead of giving attention to the attention seeker, look to these techniques:
Minimize the Attention (Ignore the behavior, stand close by, give written notice)
Legitimize the Behavior (Make a lesson out of the behavior, have the whole class join in the behavior)
Do the Unexpected (Turn out the lights, play a musical sound, talk to the wall)
Distract the Student (Ask a direct question, ask a favor, change the activity)
Notice Appropriate Behavior (Thank students, write well-behaved students' names on the chalkboard)
Move the Student (Change the student's seat, send the student to the thinking chair)
ii) Power and Control
Students who feel inferiority, so trying to be boss. Once the battle has been joined, the child has already won it. Behavior characteristics consist of the student repetitively doing a behavior to make him or her the center of attention. When asked to stop, he or she becomes defiant and escalates his or her negative behavior and challenges the adult. The teacher will feel annoyed at the students's actions.
Wolfgang (2001) states, "A student who wishes to possess power should not be able to engage the teacher in a struggle. The teacher who falls for this 'bait' and gets pulled into the battle is merely continuing the excitement and challenge for the student. The student becomes increasingly bolder and pleased with trying to test the teacher. The teacher should attempt to remove the issue of power altogether and force the student to look for some other goal for behaving" (p. 121).
iii) Revenge
Students who think the only way to get recognition is to retaliate against adults for the way they feel they have been unfairly treated. This is formed after a long series of discouragement by failing trials for attention getting and power.
Behavior characteristics consist of a student who hurts others physically or psychologically. The teacher will feel hurt in relation to the student's actions.
Wolfgang (2001) explains, "In this case, the teacher is dealing with a more difficult task. A student who feels hurt and wishes to retaliate must be handled in a caring, affectionate manner. It is likely that this student appears unloving and uncaring, and is very hard to 'warm up to.' But this is exactly what the student needs--to feel cared for" (p. 121).
Look to these techniques with students who are seeking power and/or revenge:
Make a Graceful Exit (Acknowledge student's power, remove the audience, table the matter)
Use Time-Out
Set the Consequence
iv Helplessness and Inadequacy
Students who gave up on the possibility of being a member or of gaining any status in the group and no longer care what happens.
Behavior characteristics consist of the student wishing not to be seen, acting passive and lethargic, rejecting social control, refusing to comply, or trying most educational demands. The teacher will feel inadequate or incapable in relation to the student's actions.
Students may sit silently and engage in no interaction, passively refuse to participate, or request to be left alone in this instance.
Wolfgang (2001) states, "The student who shows inadequacy or helplessness is the most discouraged. She has lost all initiative of ever trying to belong to the group. The teacher must exercise great patience and attempt to show the child that she is capable" (p. 122).
To assist a helpless student look to these techniques:
- Modify Instructional Methods
- Use Concrete Learning Materials and Computer-Assisted Instruction
- Teach One Step at a Time
- Provide Tutoring
- Teach Positive Self-Talk
- Make Mistakes Okay
- Build Confidence
- Focus on Past Success
- Make Learning Tangible
- Recognize Achievement
Teachers’ Role
• The teacher must recognize students’ inner goal and them help the students change to the more appropriate goal of learning how to belong with others (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 115).
• Techniques of modifying child’s motivation (Dreikurs, 1972, p. 34, 41)
i) Observe the child’s behavior in detail.
ii) Be psychologically sensitive to your own reaction.
iii) Confront the child with the four goals. The purpose of confrontation is to disclose and confirm the mistaken goal to the child. Use the four "could it be…" questions: 1. Could it be that you want special attention? 2. Could it be that you want your own way and hope to be boss? 3. Could it be that you want to hurt others as much as you feel hurt by them? 4. Could it be that you want to be left alone?
iv) Note the recognition reflex.
v) Apply appropriate corrective procedures.
"In carrying out this procedure, the teacher moves through silently looking, questions, command, and back to questions" (Wolfgang, 2001, p. 118).
• What teachers need are…(Dreikurs, 1968, pp. 53-54) (Dreikurs, 1972, p. 43)
i) Disinvolvement
ii) Use of logical consequences rather than reward and punishment
iii) Encouragement – accepts the child as worthwhile and assists them in developing his capacity and potentialities. Unlike the reward which is given to a child for something well done, encouragement is needed when the child fails.
Encouragement
(Dreikurs, 1972, pp. 49-59)
i) The essence of encouragement is to increase the child's confidence in himself and to convey to him that he is good enough as he is not just as he might be. It is directed toward increasing the child's belief in himself.
ii) Some points to encourage every student. Avoid discouragement. Work for improvement, not perfection. Comment effort than results. Separate the deed from the doer. Build on strength, not on weaknesses. Show your faith in the child. Mistakes should not be viewed as failures. Integrate the child into the group. Praise is not the same as encouragement. Help the child develop the courage to be imperfect.
iii) Differences between praise and encouragement
Praise can be discouraging. Praise recognizes the actor, encouragement acknowledges the act.
"Dinkmeyer and Dreikurs were not saying that praise should be totally avoided, but what they were suggesting is that too much praise makes a child dependent on the teacher" (Wolfgang. 2001, p. 127).
Logical Consequences
Basic Concept
Every act has a consequence, and if we are to avoid unpleasant results of our acts we must then behave in a way which will help to guarantee more favorable results (Dreikurs, 1968, p. 62). Logical consequences should offer the child a clear and logical choice of behavior and results. The child must perceive that he has a choice and accept the relationship of his choice to what followed (Dreikurs, 1968, p. 82). It is structured and arranged by the adult, must be experienced by the child as logical in nature (Dreikurs, 1972, p. 62).
② Origins of this idea (Dreikurs, 1972, p. 60)
i) Herbert Spencer – distinguished between punishment and natural consequences
ii) Jean Piaget – distinguished between retributive justice (punishment) and distributive justice
Criteria Distinguishing Logical Consequences from Punishment (Dreikurs, 1968, pp. 71-78)
i) Logical consequences express the reality of the social order, not of the person; punishment, the power of a personal authority.
ii) Logical consequence is logically related to the misbehavior; punishment rarely is. The child must see clearly the relationship between his act and the result of his own behavior rather than that of others.
iii) Logical consequence involves no element of moral judgment; punishment inevitable does. A logical consequence gives the child the choice of deciding for himself whether or not he wants to repeat a given act.
iv) Logical consequences are concerned only with what will happen now, punishments with the past.
v) The voice is friendly when consequences are invoked; there is anger in punishment, either open or concealed.
Conditions under which logical consequences maybe utilized (Dreikurs, 1968, pp. 78-81)
i) The use of choice: the child should be asked to choose between behaving in the correct manner or continuing with his misbehavior. If he decides to continue it, then the consequence should immediately follow.
ii) Understanding the goal of the child
iii) The situation of danger
iv) When consequences fail.
5. Classroom Meetings
Eight building blocks for carrying out effective classroom meetings (Suggested by Jane Nelson (a Dreikurs-Adlerian writer))
i) Form a circle
ii) Practice compliments and appreciation
iii) Create an agenda
iv) Develop communication skills
v) Learn about separate realities
vi) Recognize the four purposes of behavior
vii) Practice role playing and brainstorming
viii) Focus on non punitive solution
"Dreikurs, Rudolf." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2004. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 4 Nov. 2004
Wolfgang, Charles H. Solving Discipline and Classroom Management Problems: Methods and Models for Today's Teachers. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2001.
Dreikurs, R. and Cassel, P (1972). Discipline without Tears, 2nd edition, pp. 1-84, A Plum Book
Dreikurs, R. and Grey, L (1968). The New Approach to Discipline: Logical Consequences, pp. 1-82, A plum Book
1.3 Critically reflect on the theories of at least two Psychologist and apply their theory to techniques for improving student motivation.
Both theorist have strong foundation in the students sense of worth, belonging and basic needs to stimulate
This sense of belonging, how do we as educators create this environment that can take our students into their futures as contributing , responsible adults .
If we call on Hatties pie of variance , the factors that affect a students ability to become their best. the student, the teacher, home, peers, principle, school etc. lets consider aiming our programing to build, develop and connect meaning and values to tasks, the individual, the group, the college and the greater school community in making this connection of real worth values this elevates the students self esteem and motivation for learning . At Shearwater, I have observed the motivation, stimulated purely from our students strong sense of place and belonging, acceptance.
Dreikurs strong theories centrally represent deep understanding of class room management, they are controlled and concise , seeming to build out from behavioural theories developing relationships. Maslow like Dreikurs, uses a rewards and encouragement in a Steiner environment, competition is not overly incourage, personal achievements are supported.
What happens in that lesson environment, I feel plays the most powerful key in motivating fun, freedom and learning. and the need to have relevent creative lesson plans that address the needs of all, that are active and allow the student curiosity, interest and understanding beyond the subject. that allow the teacher creative ways to communicate, observe, evaluate and assess the student and their needs.
A statistic that came to my attention recently, truely disturbed what's important in my role as educator, the terrible numbers of students that daily don't turn up for school, what that equates to over a subject is a fundamental gape in a childs learning experience. so all the fantastic lesson plans, and creative learning tools don't amount to much if our students are not there.
So the power we hold indivdually and collectively in our schools has to focus on looking at why our students are not attending ?, do particular students need extra attention, support and understanding to stay motivated ?. How we stimulate motivation thus improving attendance and understanding requires creative leadership, creative programing and a creative supporting community.
As a teachers we can draw on Dreikurs, Maslow and Glassier, etc to guides us in our responsiblity, our duty of Care, to prepare our students for their futures. As teachers we need have deeper understanding about their world, be intiutive to their needs, speak the truth, and most of all don't burn out or stale.
Student motivation is only truely achieved when a student, the teachers, the parents, the school and the wider community come together to embrace the values and beliefs of the community.
As teachers we need to have clear definition of What is student motivation and an understanding of the difference between Intrinsically and Extrinsically motivated.
- A student who is intrinsically motivated undertakes an activity " for it's own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, or the feelings of accomplishment it evokes.( Mark Lepper 1988).
- An extrinsically motivated student performs "in order to obtain some reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself, such as grades, stickers, or teacher approval.
Does it really matter whether students are primarily intrinsically or extrinsically oriented towards learning?
When intrinsically motivated, students tend to employ strategies that demand more effort and that enable them to process information more deeply (topper). J Condry and J Chambers(1978) found that when students were confronted with complex intellectual tasks, those with an intrinsic orientation used more logical information gathering and descision making strategies than did students who were extrinsically oriented. Students with an intrinsic orientation also tend to prefer tasks that are moderately challenging, where as extrinsically oriented students gravitate toward tasks that are low in dergree of difficulty. Extrinsically oriented students are inclined to put forth the minimal amount of effort necessary to get the maximal reward ( Lepper)
For Motivation to be present the student needs of belonging, fun, freedom, power, that sense of community,trust and repect , that support network all need to be strongly in place. As Martin Maehr and Carol Midgley 1991) "The class room is not an Island". Depending on their degree of congruence with classroom goals and practices, school wide goals either dilute or enhance classroom efforts. To support motivation to learn, school level policies and practices should stress" learning, task mastery, and effort"rather than relative performance and competition
Our schools, our classrooms need to be places of creativity, activity , supporting intrinsic motivation and higher learning all built on a safe supported community.
If a child lives with friendliness, he learns the world is a nice place in which to live, to love and be loved..Dreikurs
No comments:
Post a Comment